Pope Leo XII (1823-1829)

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

Birth name: Annibale Francesco Clemente Melchiorre Girolamo Nicola della Genga
Birth: August 2, 1760, Castello della Genga (near Spoleto), Papal States 
Papal election: September 28, 1823
Coronation: October 5, 1823 
Pontificate: September 28, 1823 – February 10, 1829 (5 years, 4 months, 13 days)
Death: February 10, 1829, Rome, Papal States (age 68) 
Burial: St. Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City (simple earthen tomb before the altar of St. Leo the Great) 
Religious order: Secular clergy (diocesan priest)
Papal motto: None officially recorded
Cognome: “The Austere Pope,” “The Reactionary Pope,” “The Jubilee Pope,” “The Zelanti Pope”

NOTE: His pontificate was marked by a sharp conservative reaction against the policies of his predecessor, the celebration of the only Jubilee of the 19th century (1825), the condemnation of Freemasonry and Bible societies, and a deeply controversial domestic policy that sought to “resacralize” Rome by reversing Enlightenment-era reforms . Despite his reputation for harshness, he was personally austere, simple in lifestyle, and cared deeply for the poor .

EARLY LIFE AND FORMATION

Noble Origins – The Della Genga Family

The Della Genga of the Marche:

• Ancient noble family from Genga, a small town in the March of Ancona, part of the Papal States 

• The family had been ennobled by Pope Leo XI in 1605 

• The family castle (Castello della Genga) stood in the territory of Fabriano 

• Annibale was the sixth of ten children born to Count Ilario della Genga and Maria Luisa Periberti of Fabriano 

• The family had seven sons and three daughters 

• He was the uncle of Gabriele della Genga Sermattei, who in the 19th century was the only nephew of a pope to be elevated to cardinal 

Childhood (1760-1773):

• Born into the nobility of the Papal States

• Early education: humanistic formation befitting his noble status

• Destined for ecclesiastical career from an early age 

Education

Collegio Campana, Osimo (1773-1778):

• At age thirteen, placed in the Collegio Campana of Osimo 

• Studied theology and humanities

• Foundation for later ecclesiastical studies

Collegio Piceno, Rome (1778-1783):

• Transferred to the Collegio Piceno in Rome 

• Continued philosophical and theological studies

Pontifical Academy of Ecclesiastical Nobles:

• Shortly after arrival in Rome, entered the prestigious Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici 

• Training ground for future diplomats and curial officials

• Studied canon law, diplomacy, and classical languages

Ordination and Dispensation:

• Received subdiaconate in 1782 

• Ordained deacon in 1783 

• Ordained priest: June 4, 1783 (or June 14, sources vary) 

• Received dispensation for defect of age, being only 23 (canonical minimum age was 24) 

• Ordained by Cardinal Marcantonio Colonna 

Early Curial Career

Papal Chamberlain:

• Soon after ordination, attracted notice of Pope Pius VI during a papal visit to the Academy 

• Pius VI raised him to the prelature as cameriere segreto (private chamberlain) 

Funeral Oration for Joseph II (1790):

• Chosen to deliver the funeral oration in the Sistine Chapel for the Emperor Joseph II of Austria 

• Accomplished this difficult task to the admiration of all hearers 

• Navigated carefully: did not offend Austrian susceptibilities nor compromise papal authority 

• His eloquence and tact brought him to wider attention

Canon of St. Peter’s (1792):

• Appointed a canon of St. Peter’s Basilica 

• Position of honor and responsibility at the heart of Christendom

EPISCOPATE AND DIPLOMATIC CAREER (1793-1816)

Titular Archbishop of Tyre

Appointment (1793):

• Created Titular Archbishop of Tyre (in partibus infidelium) 

• Consecrated bishop: February 24, 1794 

• Principal consecrator: Henry Benedict Stuart, Duke of York (Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia and Velletri, last of the Stuart claimants) 

• Age at consecration: 34 years old

Nuncio to Switzerland (1794)

Mission to Lucerne:

• Despatched to Lucerne as Apostolic Nuncio to Switzerland 

• Brief assignment before transfer to more important post

Nuncio to Germany (1794-1805)

Appointment to Cologne (1794):

• Transferred to the Apostolic Nunciature at Cologne 

• Due to French Revolutionary Wars and French occupation of the Rhineland, forced to reside in Augsburg, Bavaria 

• Served effectively for eleven years (1794-1805) 

Diplomatic Missions:

• Entrusted with several honorable and difficult missions 

• Brought into contact with the courts of Dresden, Vienna, Munich, and Stuttgart 

• Also dealt with Napoleon during this period 

Controversies:

• During his dozen years in Germany, it was charged that his finances were disordered and his private life not above suspicion 

• These allegations would follow him, though never proven definitively

Nuncio Extraordinary to the Diet of Regensburg (1805):

• Accredited by Pope Pius VII as nuncio extraordinary to the Diet of Ratisbon (Regensburg) 

• Mission: deal with difficulties between the German Church and Prussian rulers

• Returned to Rome to confer with Cardinal Consalvi

• Learned that Napoleon desired his replacement by another nuncio more devoted to French interests 

• Pius VII remained firm in his support; Della Genga returned to Munich

Mission to Paris (1808):

• Went with Cardinal Caprara to Paris to negotiate with Napoleon I 

• Received coldly; negotiations came to nothing 

• Witnessed the indignities offered to Pius VII by the French 

Retirement at Monticelli (1808-1814)

Abbey of Monticelli:

• Returned to Rome in dismay after Napoleon’s treatment of the Pope

• Retired to the Abbey of Monticelli (near Florence, also near Piacenza according to some sources) 

• The abbey had been granted to him in commendam for life by Pope Pius VI 

• Expected to end his days there

Life in Retirement:

• During the Napoleonic abolition of the States of the Church (1798), he had already lived there 

• Solaced himself with music and bird-shooting 

• Taught his choir of peasants to play the organ and sing plainchant 

• Built tombs in the abbey church for his mother and himself, expecting to be buried there 

• Effectively a state prisoner during Pius VII’s captivity in France 

Return to Diplomacy (1814)

Mission to Paris:

• With the fall of Napoleon (1814), Pius VII returned to Rome

• Della Genga sent to Paris as envoy extraordinary to convey the pope’s congratulations to King Louis XVIII upon his restoration 

Conflict with Consalvi:

• Cardinal Ercole Consalvi, Pius VII’s powerful Secretary of State, was also in Paris accredited to all the sovereigns 

• Consalvi strongly resented Della Genga’s mission as a slight to himself 

• Louis XVIII attempted to smooth matters, but Consalvi prevailed 

• Della Genga returned to Rome, then retired again to Monticelli 

CARDINALATE (1816-1823)

Creation as Cardinal

Created Cardinal (March 8, 1816): 

• Elevated by Pope Pius VII

• Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria in Trastevere 

• Received red zucchetto on March 11, titular church on April 29, 1816 

Bishop of Senigallia (1816):

• Appointed Bishop of Senigallia (Sinigaglia) with personal title of archbishop 

• Never entered his diocese due to ill health 

• Resigned the see in 1818 

• Retired to his residence near Spoleto for health reasons 

Roman Curia Positions

Vicar-General of Rome (May 9, 1820): 

• Appointed by Pius VII to this distinguished post 

• Position: deputy to the pope for the Diocese of Rome

• Oversight of clergy, parishes, religious life in the city

Other Appointments:

• Archpriest of the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore (1821-1823) 

• Prefect of several congregations 

• Prefect of the Roman Curia (1820-1823) 

• Prefect of the Congregation of Ecclesiastical Immunity (1820-1823) 

Health at This Period:

• His health had improved sufficiently to take up these positions 

• But remained frail, suffering from various ailments

CONCLAVE OF 1823 – ELECTION

Context: Death of Pius VII

Death of Pius VII (August 20, 1823): 

• Pontificate: 23 years (1800-1823)

• One of the longest and most tumultuous pontificates in history

• Pius VII had endured Napoleon’s captivity and seen the Restoration

• His Secretary of State, Cardinal Ercole Consalvi, had pursued moderate, conciliatory policies

Political Situation (1823):

• Europe in the Restoration era after Napoleon’s fall

• Congress of Vienna (1815) had reshaped Europe

• Conservative reaction against revolutionary ideas

• Papal States recovering from French occupation

• Liberal movements (Carbonari, Freemasons) spreading in Italy

Factions in the College of Cardinals:

• Zelanti (Conservatives): Wanted a break with Consalvi’s “liberal” policies, a return to more reactionary governance, primarily religious interest 

• Moderates/Politicanti: Supported Consalvi’s approach, favored cooperation with the great powers

• French and Austrian factions: Representing the interests of Catholic monarchies

The Conclave

Dates: September 2 – September 28, 1823 

Duration: 26 days

Location: Quirinal Palace, Rome

Major Candidates:

The Struggle:

• First phase (September 2-20): Various candidates considered; Severoli gained strength daily 

• September 21, morning: Severoli had received 26 votes, just below the required two-thirds; next scrutiny would likely elect him 

The Austrian Veto:

• Cardinal Giuseppe Albani, representing Austria at the conclave, informed the cardinals that the election of Cardinal Severoli would not be acceptable to the Emperor 

• Formal veto pronounced against Severoli 

• The Zelanti were furious but had to accept 

The Turning Point:

• At Severoli’s own suggestion, the Zelanti bloc transferred their support to Della Genga 

• Before the great powers realized what was happening, Della Genga was elected 

• September 28, 1823: Received 34 votes, elected pope 

Della Genga’s Reluctance:

• Initially unwilling to accept

• With tears, reminded cardinals of his ill health: “You are electing a dead man” 

• They insisted it was his duty

• Finally accepted gracefully

• Assured Cardinal Castiglione that he would someday be pope (prophesying his successor Pius VIII) 

• Announced intention to take name: Leo XII 

Significance of Election:

• Victory for the Zelanti conservatives

• Rejection of Consalvi’s moderate policies

• Despite French and initial Austrian opposition, Della Genga prevailed

• His poor health was actually a factor in his favor (expected short pontificate)

Coronation and Possession

Coronation (October 5, 1823): 

• Crowned in St. Peter’s Basilica

• Age at coronation: 63 years old

Possession of St. John Lateran:

• Traditional ceremony taking possession of the cathedral of Rome

• Date not specified in sources

First Act:

• Appointed Cardinal Giulio Maria della Somaglia (an octogenarian) as Secretary of State 

• Significant: signaled immediate break with Consalvi’s policies 

• Consalvi himself was dismissed 

PONTIFICATE (1823-1829) – THE CONSERVATIVE RESTORATION

Character and Governing Style

Personal Piety and Austerity:

• Simple, devout man, morally strong 

• Left the gilded Quirinal Palace to live at the more austere Vatican, abandoned for two centuries 

• According to French ambassador Chateaubriand: “Leo XII, a prince of great stature and with a serene yet sad air, is dressed in a simple white cassock. He has no pomp and stands in a poor room, almost without furniture.” 

• Devoted himself to work

• Simple in mode of life 

• Endured pain well 

Hobbies:

• Passion for shooting birds 

• Continued this pastime from his Monticelli days

• Rumored to have killed a peasant with whom he argued about sporting rights (unverified) 

Health:

• Frail from before his election

• Fell ill after coronation but rallied surprisingly

• Endured despite constant infirmities

The Miracle of Strambi:

• December 1823: Leo XII fell suddenly ill, seemed likely to die 

• Bishop Vincenzo Strambi of Marittima (former advisor to Pius VII) offered his own life to God so that the pope could live 

• Leo XII rallied to great surprise

• Strambi died of a stroke within the week 

• Leo showed surprising endurance in work thereafter 

Governing Philosophy:

• Shared the wish of the Zelanti that his pontificate should have a less political, more religious orientation 

• “He was determined to change the condition of society, bringing it back to the utmost of his power to the old usages and ordinances, which he deemed to be admirable; and he pursued that object with never flagging zeal.” 

• Little insight into the hopes and visions of those pioneering greater liberty 

• Sought to “resacralize” Rome after French occupation 

Domestic Policy – The Reactionary Program

Appointments and Administration:

• Replaced Consalvi with conservative della Somaglia 

• Appointed a Congregation of State to advise on political and religious matters 

• Purified the Curia of inefficient and venal officials 

Restoration of Ecclesiastical Control:

• Collegio Romano restored to Jesuits (1824): 

  • Returned to the efficient hands of the Society of Jesus

  • Symbol of educational reclamation

• Educational Reorganization:

  • Education placed entirely under priestly control 

  • New chairs founded at universities but teaching supervised to stifle criticism 

  • Required secondary instruction in Latin 

  • Bull Quod divina sapientia reorganized educational system 

• Legal System:

  • Ecclesiastical courts of pre-1800 pattern returned 

  • Laicization of administration halted 

  • Court proceedings required to be in Latin 

  • Made justice less costly 

• Charitable Institutions:

  • All placed under direct ecclesiastical supervision 

Fiscal Policy:

• Reduced taxes 

• Reduced superfluous offices 

• Strict economy 

• Yet left Church’s finances more confused than he found them 

• Even the Jubilee of 1825 did not mend financial matters 

Treatment of Jews:

• Property Restrictions: Forbade Jews to own property 

• Forced Sale: Allowed only the shortest possible time to sell what they owned 

• Ghettoization: Confined Jews again to ghettos 

• Revived Medieval Regulations: Required segregation and identification marks 

• Result: Many of Rome’s Jews emigrated to Trieste, Lombardy, and Tuscany 

Social and Moral Regulations:

• Dress Code: Decreed that dressmakers who sold low or transparent dresses incurred ipso facto excommunication 

• Catechism: Required all Roman residents to listen to Catholic catechism commentary 

• Surveillance: Petty clerical surveillance of private life 

Suppression of Dissent:

• Carbonari and Freemasons: Hunted down 

• Secret Societies: Condemned (1825) 

• Repression in the Provinces: Particularly severe in Umbria, Marche, and Romagna 

• Methods: System of espionage, secret denunciation, wholesale application of gibbet and galleys 

• Cardinal Rivarola: Charged with suppression in Romagna; his severities met popular discontent 

• Result: Insurrections, conspiracies, assassinations, rebellion 

Assessment of Domestic Policy:

• “The results of his method of governing his states soon showed themselves in insurrections, conspiracies, assassinations and rebellion” 

• Left “a very terrible, rankling and long-enduring debt of party hatreds, political and social demoralisation, and contempt for and enmity to the law” 

• The modern state that Consalvi had been tentatively fostering reverted to a police regime 

• Economic stagnation, alienation of middle classes, hatred for the personally mild pontiff 

• Papal state became one of the most backward in Europe 

Religious Policy and Doctrinal Condemnations

First Encyclical (May 5, 1824):

• Condemned indifferentism, toleration, and religious liberty 

• Condemned Bible societies 

• Reinforced the Index of Forbidden Books 

• Strengthened the Holy Office (Inquisition) 

Condemnation of Freemasonry (1825):

• Declared “perpetual” ban on Masonic lodges 

• Condemned their derivatives such as the Carbonari 

• Bull Quo Graviora issued 

Support for Jesuits:

• Favored them consistently 

• Returned Collegio Romano to them

• Supported their educational work

• Encouraged their spiritual exercises

Jubilee of 1825:

• Only Jubilee of the 19th century: 

  • Those of 1800, 1850, and 1875 prevented by historical circumstances

• Announced despite opposition of timid and reactionary prelates and sovereigns 

• Sought to make it a time of spiritual and authoritarian reform for Rome 

• Attendance: Brought tens of thousands to Rome, but very few from outside Italy 

• Effect: Did not mend finances as hoped 

• Significance: Demonstrated Catholic renewal after Napoleonic devastation

Foreign Policy

Rejection of Consalvi’s Policies:

• Immediate dismissal of Consalvi 

• Rejection of Pius VII’s moderate approach 

• Return to more traditional papal diplomacy

Secretaries of State:

Concordats:

• Negotiated certain concordats very advantageous to the papacy 

• Hanover (1824): Agreement with the Kingdom of Hanover 

• Netherlands (1827): Agreement with the United Kingdom of the Netherlands 

• These aimed to regularize Church-state relations in predominantly Protestant lands

Latin America:

• Wars of Independence (1810s-1820s): Spanish colonies fighting for independence

• Initially displayed cautious neutrality 

• Allowed ordination of clergy sympathetic to independence movements 

• Sought to avoid anti-clerical policies by the Liberadores 

• Encyclical Etsi longissimo terrarum: Exhorted Hispanic American clergy to urge obedience and submission to legitimate sovereign (Spain) 

• Encyclical Etsi iam diu (September 24, 1824): 

  • Called for prayers for the Church in Latin America

  • Maintained pro-royalist stance

  • Due to logistical problems, delivered after the Battle of Ayacucho (December 1824), which ended the wars

  • Concerned about liberal ideologies and Enlightenment errors spreading

Netherlands:

• Met and overcame persecution of Catholics in the Netherlands 

• Encouraged Catholic resistance

• Concordat of 1827 regularized situation

British Isles:

• Managed and encouraged the movement for Catholic Emancipation 

• Success assured by the end of his pontificate (Catholic Emancipation Act passed 1829, shortly after his death)

France and Spain:

• Supported legitimist cause in both countries 

• In France, this meant support for the ultra-royalist policies of Charles X

• In Spain, support for Ferdinand VII against liberals

• Noted that in both countries, religion was misused as instrument of political reaction 

• Even when legitimist representatives showed themselves indifferent or opposed to the interests of the Faith, Leo supported them 

German States:

• Continued engagement with German ecclesiastical affairs

• Built on his long experience as nuncio in Germany

Relations with Religious Orders

Jesuits:

• Restored Collegio Romano to them (1824)

• Favored them in all their ventures

• Supported their educational and missionary work

Oblates of Mary Immaculate:

• Crucial Role in Approbation (1825-1826): 

• Eugène de Mazenod (1782-1861): Founder of the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate

• Arrived in Rome November 26, 1825, seeking approbation of his Rule 

• Learned that Congregation for Bishops and Religious initially granted only decree of praise

Audience with Leo XII (December 20, 1825): 

• De Mazenod spent half an hour with the pope

• Convinced Leo XII to approve rather than merely praise the Rule

• Leo expressed to Bishop Adinolfi: “This society pleases me, I wish to favour it. Choose a Cardinal, one of the mildest of the Congregation… go to him on my behalf and tell him my intention is not merely that these Rules be praised but that they be approved.” 

Approbation (February 17, 1826): 

• Leo XII confirmed the decision of the congregation of Cardinals

• Specifically approved the Institute, Rules, and Constitutions

• Signed the brief on March 21, 1826

• De Mazenod wrote: “Te Deum laudamus… yesterday evening, the Sovereign Pontiff Leo XII confirmed the decision… and accompanied this solemn act of his pontifical power, with most admiring words for those who happily form this society from which the head of the Church indeed expects the greatest good.” 

Second Audience (April 15, 1826): 

• De Mazenod received another half-hour audience

• Leo spoke with “goodness” and “grace”

• De Mazenod learned that the pope had a plan to gather a Roman council, calling theologians from outside Italy, elevating them to cardinalate and placing them in curia

• In France, Leo’s choice had settled on Lamennais and on de Mazenod 

Significance:

• Leo XII’s personal intervention crucial for Oblate approval

• De Mazenod mentioned him about 150 times in his writings 

• The pope’s name appears in almost every issue of Missions O.M.I. for a century 

Patronage of Arts and Learning

Vatican Printing Press:

• Restored the Vatican printing press 

• Improved production of liturgical and scholarly books

Vatican Library:

• Enriched with new acquisitions 

• Supported scholars and librarians

Scholars Encouraged:

• Cardinal Giuseppe Maria Velzi (later Prefect of Index)

• Mauro Cappellari (future Pope Gregory XVI)

• Angelo Mai (prefect of Vatican Library)

• Jean-François Champollion: Egyptian scholar who deciphered hieroglyphics 

Archaeology:

• Supported excavation and preservation

• Encouraged study of Christian antiquities

Restoration of St. Paul’s Outside the Walls:

• Much done toward rebuilding 

• Continued work on major Roman basilicas

Music and Liturgy:

• Restored seemliness of worship 

• Encouraged sacred music

• Continued his personal love of music from Monticelli days

Creation of Cardinals

Number of Cardinals Created:

• Created cardinals in several consistories during his pontificate

• Among them future Pope Gregory XVI (Mauro Cappellari, created in pectore 1825, published 1826)

• Also Cardinal Tommaso Bernetti, later Secretary of State

Notable Appointments:

Writings and Documents

Major Encyclicals:

Other Documents:

• Numerous briefs and constitutions

• Approbation of religious orders (including Oblates)

• Concordats with Hanover and Netherlands

LAST YEARS AND DEATH

Final Years (1828-1829)

Continuing Work:

• Despite constant ill health, continued to govern

• Replaced della Somaglia with Bernetti as Secretary of State (1828)

• Continued diplomatic efforts

• Followed Catholic Emancipation movement in Britain

February 5, 1829:

• After a private audience with Cardinal Bernetti, suddenly taken ill 

• Seemed himself to know that his end was near 

Last Days:

• February 8: Asked for and received Viaticum; was anointed 

• February 9, evening: Lapsed into unconsciousness 

Death

February 10, 1829:

• Died at age 68

• Location: Vatican Palace, Rome

• Cause: complications from illness; exact cause unspecified

• Surrounded by cardinals and attendants

• Had reigned 5 years, 4 months, 13 days

Last Words:

• Not recorded precisely

• Likely prayers, commendation of soul

Reaction:

• Rome: unpopular pope, but personally respected

• The poor he had cared for mourned

• Cardinals prepared for new conclave

• Liberals relieved at end of repressive regime

Successor:

• Conclave: February – March 1829

• Elected: Pope Pius VIII (Francesco Saverio Castiglione)

• The man Leo XII had prophesied would succeed him 

• Pius VIII reigned 1829-1830

Funeral and Burial

Funeral:

• St. Peter’s Basilica

• Ceremony: standard papal funeral

• Eulogies: mixed; praised personal piety but not temporal governance

Burial:

• According to his wishes: simple earthen tomb in St. Peter’s Basilica 

• Location: before the altar of St. Leo the Great (Pope Leo I) 

• Epitaph: describes him as “a humble devotee, the smallest of the heirs of such a great name” 

• Consistent with his personal austerity: no grand monument

LEGACY AND HISTORICAL EVALUATION

Major Achievements

1. Jubilee of 1825:

• Only Jubilee of 19th century 

• Demonstrated Catholic renewal after Napoleonic devastation

• Brought thousands of pilgrims to Rome

• Spiritual high point of pontificate

2. Condemnation of Secret Societies:

• Bull Quo Graviora (1825) condemned Freemasonry and Carbonari

• Reinforced Church’s opposition to anti-clerical movements

• Clarified Catholic position on secret societies

3. Concordats:

• Hanover (1824) and Netherlands (1827) regularized Church-state relations

• Advantageous terms for the Church

• Built on diplomatic experience from nunciature years

4. Support for Religious Orders:

• Crucial role in approbation of Oblates of Mary Immaculate (1826) 

• Restoration of Collegio Romano to Jesuits (1824)

• Encouraged traditional religious life

5. Personal Austerity:

• Lived simply despite noble origins 

• Moved to Vatican to show less political, more religious orientation 

• Cared for the poor 

• Buried in simple earth tomb

6. Patronage of Learning:

• Restored Vatican printing press

• Enriched Vatican Library

• Encouraged scholars like Champollion 

• Supported archaeology and restoration

7. Catholic Emancipation Support:

• Encouraged movement in Britain 

• Success achieved shortly after his death

• Major victory for English Catholics

8. Defense of Church in Netherlands:

• Met and overcame persecution 

• Concordat of 1827 secured rights

Failures and Criticisms

1. Reactionary Domestic Policy:

• Reversed Consalvi’s moderate reforms 

• Restored ecclesiastical courts and clerical control 

• Created police state with spies and informers 

• Provoked insurrections and rebellion 

2. Anti-Jewish Measures:

• Forbade property ownership 

• Confined to ghettos 

• Revoked Enlightenment-era improvements

• Caused emigration of many Roman Jews 

• Moral stain on pontificate

3. Economic Failure:

• Despite tax reduction and economy, finances remained confused 

• Jubilee did not mend matters 

• Papal States economically backward 

4. Harsh Repression:

• Wholesale application of gibbet and galleys 

• System of espionage and secret denunciation 

• Created lasting hatreds 

5. Support for Legitimist Reaction:

• Supported regimes that misused religion for political ends 

• Even when legitimists opposed Church interests 

• Alienated liberals who might have been allies

6. Lack of Political Insight:

• “He lacked insight into, and sympathy with, the temporal developments of his period” 

• “Little insight into the hopes and visions of those who were then pioneers of the greater liberty that had become inevitable” 

• Diminished chances for successors to solve new problems 

Personal Assessment

Virtues:

• Personally pious and devout 

• Morally strong 

• Simple in lifestyle, austere 

• Endured pain well 

• Cared for the poor 

• Devoted to work 

• Faithful to what he believed right

Weaknesses:

• Lacked flair for leadership 

• No insight into modern developments 

• Reactionary rather than creative

• Harsh where gentleness might have served better

• Surrounded by relatives? (sources note he was uncle of future cardinal, but personal nepotism not emphasized)

Personality:

• Tall and thin, ascetic look, melancholic countenance 

• Serene yet sad air 

• Loved music (taught peasants to sing plainchant) 

• Loved bird-shooting 

• Simple, devout, morally strong 

Historiographical Assessment

Catholic Encyclopedia (1913):

• Balanced assessment: acknowledges failures in temporal policy but praises spiritual governance

• “There is something pathetic in the contrast between the intelligence and masterly energy displayed by him as ruler of the Church and the inefficiency of his policy as ruler of the Papal States” 

• Praises his noble character, passion for order and efficiency 

• Regrets his lack of insight into modern developments 

Encyclopedia Britannica (historical):

• Focuses on reactionary policies, anti-Jewish measures

• Notes personal austerity and piety

• Emphasizes Jubilee of 1825

Oxford Reference:

• “A simple, devout man, morally strong but lacking the flair of leadership” 

• Documents reactionary policies and their consequences 

• Notes Papal States became “one of the most backward in Europe” 

Aleteia (Catholic popular source):

• Positive: “strict but humble,” “cared about the poor” 

• Emphasizes Jubilee and move to Vatican

• Quotes Chateaubriand’s description 

Swedish Nordisk familjebok (1912):

• Documents ultramontane policies, persecution of radicals, harassment of Jews 

• But acknowledges some administrative merits: superfluous offices reduced, controls tightened, attention to economic flourishing 

OMI World:

• Entirely positive: crucial role in approving Oblate rule 

• De Mazenod’s gratitude 

Comparison with Predecessors and Successors

Comparison with Innocent XII (1691-1700):

• Innocent XII: abolished nepotism, reformed Curia, austere, beloved by poor

• Leo XII: also austere, also cared for poor , but reactionary rather than reformer

• Innocent XII built little but reformed much; Leo XII built little and reformed unwisely

• Both personally pious; Leo XII’s temporal policies far more controversial

Comparison with Clement XI (1700-1721):

• Both long diplomatic experience before election

• Both faced major controversies (Clement: Chinese Rites; Leo: Restoration politics)

• Both patrons of learning

• Clement’s decisions more lasting (Unigenitus); Leo’s policies largely reversed

Epitaph

Actual Inscription:

• Describes him as “a humble devotee, the smallest of the heirs of such a great name” 

• Reference to St. Leo the Great, before whose altar he is buried

Chateaubriand’s Description:

• “Leo XII, a prince of great stature and with a serene yet sad air, is dressed in a simple white cassock. He has no pomp and stands in a poor room, almost without furniture.” 

Implied Epitaph:

“Here lies Annibale della Genga, Leo XII, who in five years tried to turn back the clock of history. He condemned the errors of his age with firm voice, celebrated the only Jubilee of a troubled century, and lived in a poor room though he ruled a state. He loved the poor, feared God, and distrusted the future. The Jews he confined to ghettos; the liberals he sent to galleys; the revolutionaries he hunted down. Yet he was personally kind, morally strong, and simple as a monk. He rests before the altar of the Great Leo—the smallest heir of such a great name, as he wished.”

The Jubilee of 1825

Significance:

• Only Holy Year in the 19th century 

• Napoleonic wars and political turmoil prevented others

• Leo XII determined to make it a time of spiritual and authoritarian reform 

• Intended to “resacralize” Rome after French occupation 

Celebration:

• Pilgrims came from throughout Italy and Europe

• But fewer from outside Italy than hoped 

• Indulgences granted, devotions encouraged

• Elaborate ceremonies in Roman basilicas

Outcome:

• Did not mend finances 

• But demonstrated Church’s survival after Napoleonic trauma

• Leo’s great spiritual achievement

The Oblate Connection

Importance for Oblates of Mary Immaculate:

• Leo XII personally intervened to approve their Rule 

• De Mazenod’s gratitude: mentioned him 150 times in writings 

• The pope’s name appears in almost every issue of Missions O.M.I. for a century 

• Leo saw de Mazenod as potential cardinal and theologian for a Roman council 

• De Mazenod ever attributed the credit to Leo XII’s express will 

De Mazenod’s Words:

• “The Pope knew everything and weighed everything in his profound wisdom…” 

• “With what goodness he spoke to me, with what grace he smiled at the things I said, with what abandon he granted me all that I asked” 

Final Judgment

Pope Leo XII, Annibale della Genga, reigned for five and a half years—a brief but consequential pontificate at the dawn of the Restoration era. He stands as the reactionary pope, a man who tried to turn back the clock of history, to undo the work of the French Revolution and Napoleon, and to restore the old order in Church and state. He failed—but his failure was instructive.

His greatest spiritual achievement was the Jubilee of 1825, the only Holy Year of the 19th century. In an age of revolution and doubt, he called the faithful to Rome, to prayer, to penance. Thousands came. The Church, battered by decades of persecution, showed that it still lived.

His most lasting institutional legacy may be his support for new religious orders, especially the Oblates of Mary Immaculate. His personal intervention ensured their approbation, and they spread throughout the world. Eugene de Mazenod never forgot his kindness.

His personal example was admirable. He lived simply in a poor room, dressed in a plain white cassock, had no pomp . He cared for the poor, endured pain without complaint, worked tirelessly despite constant illness. He was, in private, the kind of man anyone would respect.

His temporal governance was a disaster. The Papal States under Leo XII became a police state, with spies and informers, gibbet and galleys . The Jews were confined to ghettos, stripped of property, driven to emigrate . The middle classes were alienated, the economy stagnated, hatreds accumulated that would explode after his death . He left his successors a poisoned inheritance.

His political judgment was flawed. He supported legitimist regimes that misused religion for reactionary ends . He had no insight into the “hopes and visions of those who were then pioneers of the greater liberty that had become inevitable” . He saw the modern world only as error to be condemned, not as challenge to be met.

In the history of the papacy, Leo XII occupies a paradoxical place: a good man who governed badly, a pious pope whose policies provoked impiety, an austere ruler whose rule created resentment. He is remembered as the Jubilee Pope, the Reactionary Pope, the last pope to celebrate a Holy Year until the 20th century.

Comparison with Innocent XII (1691-1700) is instructive. Innocent XII also lived simply, also cared for the poor, also tried to reform the Church. But Innocent XII looked forward; Leo XII looked backward. Innocent XII abolished nepotism, streamlined the Curia, and prepared the Church for the modern world. Leo XII revived old oppressions, alienated the middle classes, and stored up troubles for the future. Personal holiness is not enough; a pope must also govern wisely.

His burial before the altar of St. Leo the Great is fitting. He chose to be called Leo XII, and he lies in the shadow of the greatest Leo. The epitaph he wanted—”a humble devotee, the smallest of the heirs of such a great name” —captures his self-understanding. He did not aspire to greatness; he aspired to fidelity. But fidelity to the past, without openness to the future, is not enough.

Chateaubriand’s portrait lingers: the tall, sad-faced pope in the poor room, with serene yet melancholy air . A man who tried, who failed, who loved God and loved the poor, who governed harshly and was personally kind, who died mourned by few but respected by all who knew him.

His epitaph might be: “He condemned the errors of his age and loved the poor of his city. He celebrated the Jubilee and restored the Jesuits. He governed harshly and left a bitter legacy. But in his poor room, in his simple white cassock, he knelt before God and asked only to be the smallest heir of a great name. May God, who sees the heart and not the policy, have mercy on him.”

Leo XII: the pope who tried to restore the past and failed—but whose personal holiness, even in failure, commands a certain respect.