Clement XI (1700-1721)

BIOGRAPHICAL DATA

Birth name: Giovanni Francesco Albani
Birth: July 23, 1649, Urbino, Papal States
Papal election: November 23, 1700
Coronation: December 8, 1700
Pontificate: November 23, 1700 – March 19, 1721 (20 years, 3 months, 24 days)
Death: March 19, 1721, Rome, Papal States (71 years old)
Burial: St. Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City (pavement tomb)
Religious order: Secular clergy (diocesan priest)
Papal motto: None officially recorded
Cognome: “Pope of the Jansenist Controversy,” “Pope of the Chinese Rites,” “Patron of Learning,” “The Albanian Pope”

NOTE: His pontificate, one of the longest of the 18th century, was dominated by the War of the Spanish Succession, the Jansenist controversy (culminating in the bull Unigenitus), and the Chinese Rites controversy, which led to the collapse of the Catholic mission in China. He was a patron of scholarship who greatly enriched the Vatican Library.

EARLY LIFE AND FORMATION

Albani Family – Albanian Origins

The Albani of Urbino:

• Distinguished noble family of Albanian origin in central Italy 

• Original surname: Lazzi (Laçi) , changed to Albani in memory of their Albanian heritage 

• Family had migrated from Albania to Italy, settling in Urbino

• Tradition of scholarship and ecclesiastical service

Parents:

• Carlo Albani (1623–1684): father, a patrician of Urbino

• Elena Mosca (1630–1698): mother, from the noble Mosca family of Pesaro 

• Maternal descent: partly from the Staccoli family (patricians of Urbino) and the Giordani (nobles of Pesaro) 

Family Connections:

• Annibale Albani: uncle, distinguished scholar, Prefect of the Vatican Library 

• Grandfather: held for thirteen years the honorable office of Senator of Rome under Pope Urban VIII 

• Family deeply embedded in papal administration and Roman intellectual circles

Connection to Homeland:

• Francesco Albani funded an expedition to Albania to locate the exact settlement of his family’s origins

• Final report presented two most probable locations: Laç near Lezhë and Laç near Kukës, both in northern Albania 

• Retained lifelong interest in Albanian affairs

Childhood and Education

Early Years (1649-1660):

• Born in Urbino, a cultural center of the Papal States

• Early education: humanistic formation in classical languages and literature

• Showed precocious intellectual gifts

Roman College (1660-1668):

• Sent to Rome at age eleven (1660) to study at the Collegio Romano, the premier Jesuit institution 

• Curriculum: humanities, rhetoric, philosophy, theology

• Made rapid progress in classical studies

• Known as an author at age eighteen, translating from Greek into elegant Latin 

• Became a very proficient Latinist 

Patronage of Queen Christina of Sweden:

• Attracted notice of Queen Christina of Sweden (1626-1689), patroness of Roman literati

• Before coming of age, enrolled in her exclusive Accademia 

• Frequented the academy, engaging with leading intellectuals of Rome 

• Connections: opened doors to Roman intellectual and ecclesiastical circles

Higher Studies:

• Applied himself with equal ardor and success to theology and canon law

• Created doctor of canon and civil law (in utroque iure) 

• Brilliant intellect combined with “stainless morals and piety” 

Early Curial Career

Papal Prelate (age 28, c. 1677):

• At age twenty-eight, made a papal prelate 

• Rapid advancement due to reputation and connections

Governor of Provincial Cities:

• Rieti: governed as prelate

• Sabina: governed

• Orvieto: governed 

• Reputation: everywhere acceptable “on account of his reputation for justice and prudence” 

• Administrative experience in Papal States governance

Recalled to Rome:

• Appointed Vicar of St. Peter’s Basilica

• Important pastoral position at the heart of Christendom

Secretary of Papal Briefs (1687-1700):

• Succeeded Cardinal Slusio in this crucial position

• Held for thirteen years (1687-1700) 

• Responsibilities: drafting papal briefs (less formal but important papal documents)

• Command of classical Latinity singularly fitted him for this role 

• Wrote the severe condemnation of nepotism issued by Pope Innocent XII 

Cardinalate

Created Cardinal (February 13, 1690): 

• Elevated by Pope Alexander VIII (1689-1691)

• Age: 40 years old

• Accepted despite his protests 

• Reason: merit, intellectual reputation, curial service

Titular Churches:

• Initially: Cardinal-Deacon of Santa Maria in Aquiro 

• Later: opted for Diaconia of Sant’Adriano al Foro 

• Later: Cardinal-Priest with titulus of San Silvestro in Capite 

Role under Innocent XII:

• Continued as Secretary of Papal Briefs

• One of three cardinals entrusted by Pope Innocent XII with advising on the Spanish succession question 

• Advised the pope to pronounce secretly in favor of the will of Charles II of Spain (this would later prove significant) 

Ordination to Priesthood (September 1700):

• Ordained in September 1700, shortly before his election 

• Celebrated his first Mass in Rome on October 6, 1700 

• Had been a cardinal for ten years before ordination (not unusual for curial cardinals)

Character and Reputation Before Election

Intellectual Qualities:

• Brilliant classical scholar

• Proficient Latinist and translator

• Doctor of both laws

• Experienced administrator (governor of three cities)

• Thirteen years as Secretary of Briefs

Moral Qualities:

• “Stainless morals and piety” 

• Reputation for justice and prudence

• Known to oppose nepotism (had drafted Innocent XII’s bull)

Age and Health at Election (1700):

• Age: 51 years old

• Health: “powerful frame” capable of prodigious work 

• Experienced but still young enough for active pontificate

CONCLAVE OF 1700 – ELECTION

Context: Death of Innocent XII

Death of Innocent XII (September 27, 1700):

• Pontificate: 9 years (1691-1700)

• Died at age 85

• Had abolished nepotism with bull Romanum Decet Pontificem (1692)

• College of Cardinals: approximately 60 electors

Critical Moment in European Politics:

• Charles II of Spain (last Spanish Habsburg) had died on November 1, 1700, during the sede vacante

• Left vast Spanish Empire (Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan, Netherlands, Americas) to Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV

• Emperor Leopold I contested the will, claiming Spain for his second son, Archduke Charles

• European war imminent (War of the Spanish Succession would begin 1701)

• Papacy needed pope capable of navigating crisis

Situation of the Church (1700):

• Innocent XII’s reforms: nepotism abolished, curia reformed

• France: Louis XIV at height of power, Gallicanism still problematic

• Austria: Emperor Leopold I, pious but asserting imperial claims

• Jansenism: still simmering in France and Low Countries

• Chinese Rites: controversy unresolved

• Missions: expanding globally but facing challenges

The Conclave

Dates: October 9 – November 23, 1700

Duration: 46 days 

Location: Apostolic Palace, Rome

Opening: October 9, 1700, twelve days after Innocent XII’s death

Major Candidates:

1. Cardinal Bandino Panciatici: early favorite but lacked sufficient support

2. Cardinal Galeazzo Marescotti: able cardinal, but vetoed by France 

   • France objected, making his election impossible

   • Demonstrates continued royal influence over conclaves

3. Cardinal Giovanni Francesco Albani (51):

   • Youngest serious candidate

   • Reputation: virtuous, learned, experienced

   • Had advised Innocent XII on Spanish succession (unknown to Austria at the time)

   • Objection: his youth (51 considered young for pope)

   • But: virtues and ability overbalanced this objection 

The Struggle:

• First forty days: various candidates considered and rejected

• French veto of Marescotti eliminated strongest candidate

• Cardinals sought compromise figure acceptable to all factions

• Albani’s neutrality and reputation made him increasingly attractive

Why Albani Won:

1. Reputation for virtue: “stainless morals and piety” universally recognized 

2. Curial experience: thirteen years as Secretary of Briefs, governor of three cities

3. Intellectual distinction: renowned scholar, Latinist

4. Neutrality: not aligned with French or Austrian extremes

5. Connection to Innocent XII: had drafted anti-nepotism bull, seen as reformer

6. Age paradox: young enough to govern, old enough to have experience

7. Virtues and ability overbalanced objection of youth 

Election (November 23, 1700):

• Elected unanimously 

• Albani: reluctant, spent three days in effort to overcome his reluctance to accept 

• “Experienced curialist” knew better than anyone the heavy burden of the dignity 

• Finally persuaded it was his duty to obey the call from Heaven 

• Chose name: Clement XI

  • Honoring Pope Clement VIII? Clement I? (likely general tribute)

Significance of Election Timing:

• Election occurred after Charles II’s death but before news had reached all parties

• Austria: would have vetoed Albani had they known he advised Innocent XII to favor Philip of Anjou 

• “This was at the time unknown to the emperor, else Austria would have vetoed the election of Albani” 

• Providential timing: allowed election of most qualified candidate

Episcopate and Coronation

Ordination as Bishop (November 30, 1700):

• Consecrated bishop at age 51

• Principal consecrator: Emmanuel-Theódose de la Tour d’Auvergne de Bouillon 

• Unusual: elevation to papacy within three months of priestly ordination 

Coronation (December 8, 1700):

• St. Peter’s Basilica

• Crowned by Cardinal Protodeacon Benedetto Pamphili 

• Feast of the Immaculate Conception

Possession of St. John Lateran (April 10, 1701): 

• Traditional ceremony taking possession of the cathedral of Rome

• Delayed due to winter and early pontificate business

International Reaction

Catholic World:

• Enthusiasm greeted his elevation throughout the world 

• “Best evidence of his worth” 

• Sincere Catholic reformers greeted his accession as “the death-knell of nepotism” 

Protestant Reaction:

• Even Protestants received the intelligence with joy 

• City of Nuremberg struck a medal in his honor 

• Remarkable: Protestant city honoring Catholic pope

• Testimony to his reputation for virtue and learning

PONTIFICATE (1700-1721) – CRISIS AND CONTROVERSY

Character and Governing Style

Personal Piety:

• Daily confession and celebration of Mass 

• Frequently seen in the confessional 

• Preached beautiful homilies 

• Kept rigorously the fasts of the Church despite demanding work 

• Special devotion to St. Joseph, composed the Office for his feast 

Work Habits:

• “His capacity for work was prodigious” 

• Slept but little 

• Ate so sparingly that “a few pence per day sufficed for his table” 

• Entered minutely into details of every measure 

• Prepared with his own hand numerous allocutions, briefs, and constitutions 

• Though his powerful frame more than once sank under the weight of his labors, he continued 

Governing Principles:

• Anti-nepotism: “As pontiff, he did not belie his principles” 

• Ordered his brother to keep at a distance, refrain from adopting any new title, and not interfere in matters of state 

• Bestowed offices of his court upon the most worthy subjects 

• Competent administrator of the Papal States 

• Extremely charitable to the poor 

• Bettered condition of prisons 

• Secured food for populace in times of scarcity 

Patronage of Arts and Sciences:

• Won good will of artists by prohibiting exportation of ancient masterpieces 

• Commissioned Francesco Bianchini to lay down on the pavement of Santa Maria degli Angeli the meridian of Rome, known as the Clementina 

• Enriched Vatican Library with manuscript treasures 

• Patron of archaeology and scholarship

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

Background:

• Charles II of Spain died November 1, 1700, willing crown to Philip of Anjou (grandson of Louis XIV)

• Emperor Leopold I contested, claiming for his son Archduke Charles

• Grand Alliance (1701): Austria, England, Dutch Republic, later Portugal and Savoy vs. France, Spain, Bavaria

Clement’s Policy: Neutrality Attempt

• Resolved to maintain a neutral attitude 

• Aim: preserve peace, protect Italy from calamity, maintain papal independence

• But: “found to be impossible” 

• When Philip V was crowned in Madrid amid universal acclamation of Spaniards, Clement acquiesced and acknowledged the validity of his title 

Consequences of Acknowledging Philip V:

• Embittered Emperor Leopold I 

• Relations between Austria and Holy See became strained

• Clement did not conceal his satisfaction when French and Bavarian troops began march on Vienna (ended disastrously at Blenheim, 1704) 

• Marlborough’s victory, followed by Prince Eugene’s successful campaign in Piedmont, placed Italy at mercy of Austrians 

Emperor Joseph I (1705-1711):

• Leopold died 1705, succeeded by oldest son Joseph I

• “Worthy precursor of Joseph II” (i.e., hostile to papal claims) 

• Contest began over Jus primarum precum (crown’s right to appoint to vacant benefices) 

• Victorious Austrians, masters of Northern Italy, invaded Papal States 

• Took possession of Piacenza and Parma 

• Annexed Comacchio 

• Besieged Ferrara 

Clement’s Resistance and Surrender:

• Clement at first offered spirited resistance 

• Abandoned by all, could not hope for success 

• Strong detachment of Protestant troops under Prince of Hesse-Cassel reached Bologna 

• Fearing repetition of Sack of Rome (1527), Clement gave way 

• January 15, 1709: acknowledged Archduke Charles as King of Spain “without detriment to the rights of another” 

• Promised him investiture of Naples 

Reaction of Bourbon Monarchs:

• Louis XIV and Philip V had done nothing to aid pope in unequal struggle 

• Both became very indignant at Clement’s surrender 

• Retaliated by every means in their power 

Peace of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714):

• Rights of pope “studiously neglected” 

• Papal nuncio not accorded a hearing 

• Papal dominions parceled out to suit convenience of parties 

• Papal suzerainty ignored in Kingdom of Naples (including Sicily) and duchies of Parma and Piacenza 

• “Heavy defeat for Clement” 

The Sicilian Question (1713-1718)

Monarchia Sicula:

• Ancient but much-disputed privilege of pontifical origin

• Allegedly excluded pope from any authority over Church in Sicily

• Victor Amadeus II of Savoy (given Sicily by Utrecht) undertook to revive it 

Clement’s Response:

• Answered with ban and interdict 

• All clergy (about 3000) who remained loyal to Holy See banished from island 

• Pope forced to give them food and shelter 

Outcome:

• Interdict not raised till 1718, when Spain regained possession 

• Old controversy repeatedly resumed under Bourbons 

• Through machinations of Cardinal Alberoni, Parma and Piacenza granted to Spanish Infante without regard to papal overlordship 

Turkish War and Christian Victory

Ottoman Threat (1715-1718):

• Turks took advantage of Christian dissensions to invade Europe by land and sea 

• Attacked Venetian possessions in Greece (Morea) and threatened Hungary

Clement’s Response:

• Proclaimed a jubilee 

• Sent money and ships to assistance of Venetians 

• Granted a tithe on all benefices to Emperor Charles VI 

• Promoted devotion to Holy Rosary for victory

Battle of Petrovaradin (August 5, 1716):

• Prince Eugene of Savoy defeated Ottoman army

• Lifted Turkish threat to Hungary

Battle of Belgrade (August 16, 1717):

• Prince Eugene captured Belgrade from Ottomans

• Decisive victory ending Turkish danger 

Clement’s Recognition:

• “No slight share of the credit was given by the Christian world to the pope and the Holy Rosary” 

• Clement sent Prince Eugene a blessed hat and sword 

Treaty of Passarowitz (July 21, 1718):

• Austria gained Banat, Belgrade, northern Serbia

• Venice lost Morea but gained Dalmatian footholds

• Ottoman threat to Central Europe ended for centuries

Jansenism and the Bull Unigenitus

Background – Jansenism:

• Theological movement emphasizing grace, predestination, human depravity

• Originated from Augustinus by Cornelius Jansen (d. 1638)

• Condemned by Urban VIII (1642), Innocent X (1653), Alexander VII (1656), Clement IX (1668)

• Centered in France and Low Countries

• Associated with Gallican resistance to papal authority

Pasquier Quesnel (1634-1719):

• Oratorian, later Jansenist leader

• Published Réflexions morales (1671, expanded 1693-1694)

• Presented Jansenist ideas in accessible form

• Widely read, especially in France

• Condemned by Clement XI in 1708 (not fully effective)

Constitution “Vineam Domini” (July 16, 1705): 

• First major Jansenist condemnation of Clement’s pontificate

• Addressed issues of “respectful silence” (whether Jansenists could remain silent on condemned propositions)

• Reaffirmed previous condemnations

• Limited effect in France due to Gallican resistance

Background to Unigenitus:

• French bishops requested papal condemnation of Quesnel’s work

• Clement XI appointed commission to examine Quesnel’s propositions

• Gregorio Selleri, lector at the College of St. Thomas (future Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas), contributed significantly 

• Commission identified 101 propositions as heretical or erroneous

Constitution “Unigenitus” (September 8, 1713): 

• Most important document of Clement’s pontificate

• Issued: September 8, 1713 (Feast of the Nativity of the Virgin)

• Condemned 101 propositions from Quesnel’s Réflexions morales

• Declared them identical in substance to propositions already condemned in Jansenius 

• Condemned propositions on:

  • Nature of grace and free will

  • Relationship of nature and grace

  • Church authority

  • Scripture reading

  • Penance and contrition

Content of Condemned Propositions (Examples):

• “Outside the Church no grace is granted” (condemned as heretical)

• “The reading of Scripture is for all” (condemned)

• “It is useful and necessary at all times, in all places, and for every kind of person, to study and to know the spirit, the piety, and the mysteries of Sacred Scripture” (condemned)

• “Faith is the first grace and the source of all others” (condemned)

Reaction in France:

• “Great upheaval in France” 

• Apart from theological issues, strong Gallican tendency persisted 

• Resistance of many French ecclesiastics 

• Refusal of French parlements to register the bull 

• Controversies extending through greater part of 18th century 

• Because local governments did not officially receive bull, it was not technically in force in those areas 

Appeal and Resistance (1717-1720):

• March 5, 1717: four Gallican bishops appealed against Unigenitus to a future general council 

• Supported by 12 other bishops and more than 3,000 priests 

• August 1718: Clement excommunicated the four bishops 

• Action proved ineffectual amid fervid Gallicans 

• Appeal renewed in September 1720 

• Controversy continued long after Clement’s death

Significance of Unigenitus:

• Defined Catholic teaching on grace and Church authority

• Became symbol of papal authority versus Gallican independence

• Divided French Church for decades

• Remained in force until 20th century

• Clement’s last major act before death

Chinese Rites Controversy

Background of the Controversy:

• Jesuit missionaries in China (16th-17th centuries): Matteo Ricci, others

• Adopted policy of accommodation:

  • Allowed Chinese converts to continue certain traditional practices

  • Honoring Confucius (civil ceremony? religious cult?)

  • Ancestor veneration (filial piety? idolatry?)

  • Used Chinese terms for God (Tian, Shangdi)

• Dominican and Franciscan missionaries opposed these accommodations

• Argued practices were superstitious, incompatible with Christianity

• Debate submitted to Rome repeatedly

Previous Papal Decisions:

• 1645: Congregation for Propagation of Faith condemned rites (based on Dominican report)

• 1656: Same congregation, after hearing Jesuits, permitted rites 

• 1669: Clement IX permitted both decrees to stand pending further investigation

• Controversy continued, involving leading European universities and eight popes 

Clement XI’s Intervention:

• Determined to settle question definitively

• Appointed commission to study issue thoroughly

• Consulted theologians, missionaries, experts on China

• Decision: rites were incompatible with Christian faith

Decree of 1704: 

• Banned the Chinese rites

• Prohibited use of terms “Tian” (Heaven) and “Shangdi” (Lord on High) for God

• Required use of “Tianzhu” (Lord of Heaven)

• Forbade Catholics from participating in ceremonies honoring Confucius

• Forbade ancestor worship in familial temples or homes

• Even passive presence at such ceremonies prohibited as “heathen in nature” 

Papal Legate to China (1705-1710):

• Clement sent Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon as legate to China

• Mission: present papal decree to Kangxi Emperor

• Tournon arrived 1705, received initially with respect

• When decree presented, Kangxi rejected it

Kangxi Emperor’s Response:

• Initially favorable to Jesuits (1692 edict of toleration)

• Considered Confucian rites civil, philosophical, not religious

• Rejected papal interference in Chinese customs

• Ordered that missionaries must accept Chinese rites to remain in China

• Those who refused expelled

Papal Bull “Ex Illa Die” (March 19, 1715): 

• Reinforced and definitively promulgated 1704 decree

• Required all missionaries to take oath accepting prohibition

• Demanded absolute obedience under pain of excommunication

• No discussion or debate permitted

• “Climax of the Rites Controversy” 

Kangxi’s Reaction to Bull (1721):

• Read the proclamation

• Responded with famous edict:

  • “Reading this proclamation, I have concluded that the Westerners are petty indeed. It is impossible to reason with them because they do not understand larger issues as we understand them in China. There is not a single Westerner versed in Chinese works, and their remarks are often incredible and ridiculous. To judge from this proclamation, their religion is no different from other small, bigoted sects of Buddhism or Taoism. I have never seen a document which contains so much nonsense. From now on, Westerners should not be allowed to preach in China, to avoid further trouble.” 

Consequences:

• Christianity banned in China (1721)

• Missionaries expelled

• Churches closed

• Flourishing missions ruined 

• Persecution of Chinese Christians began

• “Ban led to a persecution of the Chinese Christians and to the ruin of many flourishing missions” 

• Prohibition not permanently lifted until Pius XII (1939) 

Assessment:

• Clement XI acted from conviction that rites were superstitious

• Decision based on theological principles, not politics

• But practical consequences disastrous for Chinese Christianity

• “Much less wise was Clement’s condemnation of the Chinese and Malabar rites” 

• Remained controversial for centuries

Relations with the Stuart Pretenders

Support for Jacobites:

• Clement XI supported James Francis Edward Stuart (1688-1766), the exiled Stuart claimant to British throne 

• Recognized him as James III and VIII (King of England and Scotland) 

• Provided residence: Palazzo Muti in Rome 

• Donated summerhouse near shores of Lake Albano 

Marriage to Clementina Sobieska (1719):

• Arranged marriage between James Stuart and Princess Maria Clementina Sobieska

• Clementina: granddaughter of John III Sobieski, King of Poland (hero of Vienna 1683)

• Marriage celebrated in Rome with papal blessing

Baptism of Charles Edward Stuart (1720):

• Clement XI performed baptism of James’ son, Charles Edward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) 

• Born December 31, 1720, baptized early 1721

• Last Catholic claimant to British throne

• Clement’s personal involvement: sign of deep commitment to Stuart cause

Political Significance:

• Maintained papal claim to dispose of crowns (theoretically)

• Irritated Protestant British government

• Provided moral and material support to Jacobite cause

• Clementina Sobieska: added Polish royal prestige to Stuart claim

Missions and Church Organization

Propaganda Fide:

• Continued support for Congregation for Propagation of Faith (founded 1622 by Gregory XV)

• Organized missions globally

• Sent missionaries to every distant spot 

Philippine Islands:

• Organized the Church in the Philippine Islands 

• Established hierarchy, regularized ecclesiastical structure

• Spanish colonial patronage balanced with papal authority

Lisbon Patriarchate (December 7, 1716): 

• Erected Lisbon into a patriarchate 

• Elevated status of Portuguese capital

• Recognized importance of Portuguese patronage in missions

Albanian Synod (1703):

• Ordered synod of Catholic bishops in northern Albania 

• Discussed promotion of Council of Trent decrees in Albanian dioceses

• Stemming conversions among locals to Islam 

• Securing agreement to deny communion to crypto-Catholics who outwardly professed Muslim faith 

• Personal interest due to Albanian family origins

Eastern Churches:

• Maintained contact with Eastern Catholic communities

• Supported missionary work among Orthodox

Scholarly and Cultural Patronage

Vatican Library:

• “Great benefactor of the Vatican Library” 

• Enriched with manuscript treasures 

• Commissioned Joseph Simeon Assemani (Maronite scholar) to research throughout Egypt and Syria 

• Assemani gathered Syriac, Arabic, Coptic, and other Oriental manuscripts 

• “Concerted effort to acquire Christian manuscripts in Syriac from Egypt and other places in the Middle East” 

• Collection of Syriac works greatly expanded 

Illyricum Sacrum:

• Commissioned the famous Illyricum Sacrum 

• Written by Jesuit Daniele Farlati and Dom Jacopo Coleti

• Multi-volume work on ecclesiastical history of Balkan region

• Over 5,000 pages 

• Today one of the main sources for Balkan medieval history 

Archaeology:

• Interest in archaeology “credited with saving much of Rome’s antiquity” 

• Authorized expeditions which succeeded in rediscovering various ancient Christian writings 

• Authorized excavations of the Roman catacombs 

• Prohibited exportation of ancient masterpieces 

Science:

• Commissioned Francesco Bianchini to construct meridian line in Santa Maria degli Angeli 

• Known as the Clementina 

• Used for astronomical measurements, calendar verification

• Combined scientific precision with papal patronage

Numismatics:

• Continued papal tradition of issuing medals

• Many beautiful medals from his pontificate survive

• Commemorated events, buildings, jubilees

Internal Church Affairs

Canonizations (May 22, 1712): 

• St. Pius V (1504-1572): Dominican pope, saint of Lepanto victory

• St. Andrew Avellino (1521-1608): Theatine reformer

• St. Felix of Cantalice (1515-1587): Capuchin friar, first Capuchin saint

• St. Catherine of Bologna (1413-1463): Poor Clare abbess, mystic, artist

Later Canonizations:

• St. Humility (1226-1310): Vallombrosan abbess, canonized January 27, 1720 

• St. Stephen of Obazine (1085-1154): Cistercian abbot, canonized 1701 

• St. Boniface of Lausanne (1181-1260): Bishop of Lausanne, canonized 1702 

Beatifications:

• Ceslas Odrowaz (Dominican): cultus confirmed August 27, 1712 

• Jakov Varingez (Franciscan): cultus confirmed December 29, 1700 

• Peregrine Laziosi (Servite): cultus confirmed September 11, 1702 

• John of Perugia and Peter of Sassoferrato (Franciscan martyrs): September 11, 1704 

• Buonfiglio Monaldi (Servite founder): December 1, 1717 

• Pope Gregory X (1271-1276): cultus confirmed July 8, 1713 

• Humbeline of Jully (Benedictine, sister of St. Bernard): 1703 

• Alexis Falconieri, Bartholomew degli Amidei, Benedict Dellantella (Servite founders): December 1, 1717 

• John Francis Régis (Jesuit): May 24, 1716 

• Theresa (Queen of Portugal) and Sancha (her sister): May 20, 1705 and May 10, 1705 

Doctor of the Church:

• February 8, 1720: named St. Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) Doctor of the Church 

• Supplementary titles: “Doctor magnificus” (Magnificent Doctor) and “Doctor Marianus” (Marian Doctor) 

Feasts Extended:

• 1716: extended feast of Our Lady of the Rosary to the Universal Church of the Roman Rite 

• Made feast of the Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary a Holy Day of obligation 

Consistories and Cardinals:

• Created a total of 70 cardinals in 15 consistories 

• Two cardinals of his own creation later became popes:

  • Michelangelo dei Conti: his immediate successor, Pope Innocent XIII 

  • Lorenzo Corsini: later Pope Clement XII 

• Nominated eight cardinals “in pectore” (secretly), later published 

• Accepted resignation of Cardinal Gabriele Filippucci (June 7, 1706) 

• Accepted resignation of Cardinal Francesco Maria de’ Medici (June 19, 1709) 

Liturgical Contributions:

• Composed the special Office for feast of St. Joseph 

• Promoted devotion to St. Joseph

• Encouraged liturgical piety throughout Church

Indulgences and Devotions

Indulgence of 1702:

• May 2, 1702: granted indulgence to followers of Christ in district of St. Silvester in city of Nevers, France 

• Valid for seven years 

• Confirmed by Edward Vallot, Bishop of Nevers, December 29, 1702 

• Typical of many indulgences granted during pontificate

Devotional Promotion:

• Encouraged Rosary devotion (linked to Turkish victories)

• Promoted Forty Hours devotion

• Supported confraternities and pious unions

LAST YEARS AND DEATH

Final Years (1718-1721)

Health Decline:

• Powerful frame sank repeatedly under weight of labors and cares 

• But continued rigorous fasting and work schedule

• Remained active despite growing weakness

Continuing Controversies:

• Unigenitus resistance continued in France

• Chinese mission destroyed

• Political defeats not reversed

• But: scholarly patronage continued, canonizations proceeded

Premonition of Death:

• March 10, 1721 (about 11:00 am): meeting with Pierre François Lafitau, Bishop of Sisteron

• Clement told bishop his time was drawing to a close, he would soon die 

• Lafitau protested to contrary 

March 14, 1721:

• Clement XI took ill 

• Lafitau was trying to get pope’s nephew to persuade pope to name French Chief Minister Guillaume Dubois to cardinalate 

• But: Clement was in state of delirium, not responsive to pleas 

March 16, 1721 (Quadragesima Sunday):

• Pope did not participate in public services 

• However: celebrated Mass in his private chapel at the Quirinal Palace 

• Last Mass of his life

Death

March 19, 1721 (Feast of St. Joseph):

• Died at 12:45 pm 

• Age: 71 years, 7 months, 24 days

• Cause: complications from illness, exhaustion

• Feast of St. Joseph: appropriate, as he had particular devotion to St. Joseph and composed the Office for his feast 

Last Words:

• Not recorded precisely

• Likely: prayers, commendation of soul

• Possibly: expressed hope for Church he loved

Reaction:

• Rome: mourning for pope of 20 years

• Cardinals: immediate preparations for conclave

• France: mixed reactions (controversy over Unigenitus)

• China: mission already destroyed

• Scholars: loss of great patron

Significance of Death Date:

• Died on feast of St. Joseph, for whom he had “particular devotion” 

• Appropriateness noted by contemporaries

• Seen as sign of divine favor

Funeral and Burial

Funeral:

• St. Peter’s Basilica

• Ceremony: standard papal funeral

• Presider: Cardinal Dean or senior cardinal

Burial:

• Buried in the pavement of St. Peter’s Basilica rather than in an ornate tomb like those of his predecessors 

• Deliberate simplicity: consistent with anti-nepotism principles

• “His remains rest in St. Peter’s” 

• Location: floor tomb, simple inscription

Monument:

• No elaborate monument (unlike predecessors)

• Consistent with Innocent XII’s reform of papal simplicity

• Contrast with Baroque tombs of 17th-century popes

• Fitting end for pope who opposed nepotism and lived simply

LEGACY AND HISTORICAL EVALUATION

Major Achievements

1. The Bull Unigenitus (1713):

• Most significant doctrinal document of 18th-century papacy

• Defined Catholic teaching on grace, Church authority

• Remained in force for centuries

• Divided French Church but ultimately prevailed

2. Chinese Rites Decision:

• Definitive (if disastrous) settlement of long controversy

• Based on theological conviction, not politics

• Demonstrated papal authority in mission territories

• Consequences: negative for Chinese Christianity until 1939

3. Patronage of Learning:

• Enriched Vatican Library with Oriental manuscripts

• Commissioned Assemani expeditions

• Sponsored Illyricum Sacrum

• Excavated catacombs, preserved antiquities

• Supported science (Clementina meridian)

4. Turkish Victory Support:

• Financial and naval support crucial for Austrian-Venetian victory

• Shared credit for Battle of Petrovaradin and Belgrade

• Demonstrated papal relevance in defense of Christendom

5. Canonizations:

• Pius V, Andrew Avellino, Felix of Cantalice, Catherine of Bologna

• Named Anselm Doctor of the Church

• Beatified numerous saints of Counter-Reformation

6. Anti-Nepotism:

• Refused to enrich family

• Ordered brother to stay away from court

• Bestowed offices on worthy subjects

• Continued Innocent XII’s reform

7. Administrative Competence:

• Capable governor of Papal States

• Charitable to poor, improved prisons

• Secured food supply in times of scarcity

8. Stuart Support:

• Palazzo Muti for Jacobite exiles

• Baptized Charles Edward Stuart

• Maintained Catholic solidarity with persecuted English Catholics

Failures and Criticisms

1. Political Failures:

• Unable to maintain neutrality in War of Spanish Succession

• Humiliated by Austria (1709 surrender)

• Utrecht and Rastatt treaties: papal rights ignored

• Lost suzerainty over Parma, Piacenza, Naples

• “Diplomatic efforts relatively ineffectual” 

2. Chinese Rites Decision:

• “Much less wise” condemnation 

• Led to persecution, ruin of missions 

• Ban not lifted until 1939 

• Practical consequences disastrous

3. Jansenist Controversy Unresolved:

• Unigenitus provoked 30 years of discord in France 

• Gallican resistance continued

• Clement died with controversy still raging

4. Monarchia Sicula Interdict:

• Ineffective: 3000 clergy banished, pope forced to support them

• Interdict not raised till 1718

• Controversy continued under Bourbons

5. Limited International Influence:

• “Political role of the papacy was shrinking” 

• Great powers ignored papal interests at Utrecht

• Papal nuncio not even heard at peace conference

Historiographical Assessment

Catholic Encyclopedia (1913):

• Strongly positive: “great and saintly pontiff” 

• Emphasizes piety, learning, administrative ability

• Defends Unigenitus and Chinese Rites decision

• Notes political failures but blames circumstances

• Presents as model pope of early 18th century

Encyclopedia Britannica:

• Balanced: notes shrinking political role, diplomatic failures 

• Criticizes Chinese Rites decision as “much less wise” 

• Acknowledges Jansenist controversy, political defeats

• But recognizes learning, patronage

Modern Scholarship:

• Clement XI: transitional figure between Counter-Reformation and Enlightenment

• His pontificate: last great struggle of post-Tridentine theology (Unigenitus)

• Chinese Rites decision: viewed critically as cultural misunderstanding

• Patronage: recognized as significant for scholarship

• Personal piety: universally acknowledged

Comparison with Predecessors:

Comparison with Successors:

Personal Assessment

Strengths:

• Prodigious worker, slept little, ate sparingly 

• Daily Mass, confession, preaching 

• Anti-nepotism: rare for era 

• Charitable to poor, improved prisons 

• Great patron of learning and arts 

• Personally devout, St. Joseph devotion 

Weaknesses:

• Political naivete? (neutrality impossible from start)

• Theological rigidity? (Chinese Rites decision)

• Sometimes overwhelmed by circumstances

• “Powerful frame more than once sank under weight of labors” 

Personality:

• Pious, learned, principled

• Hardworking, meticulous

• Devoted to duty even when ill

• Kind to poor, severe on principle

• Renaissance man in age of absolutism

Epitaph

Implied:

“He gave the Church its teaching on grace, its Bible from the East, its saints of reform. He sheltered kings in exile and sent fleets against the Turk. But the dragon of Jansenism survived his blow, and the dragon of politics devoured his states. He lies in simple pavement—the scholar pope who served God with prodigious labor and died on St. Joseph’s feast.”

Actual Inscription:

• Simple, in pavement of St. Peter’s

• Name, dates, perhaps “Clemens XI”

• Deliberate humility

The “Albanian Pope”

Significance of Albanian Origin:

• Clement XI: only pope of Albanian descent

• Proud of heritage: funded expedition to find family origins 

• Ordered Albanian synod (1703) to strengthen Catholicism in ancestral homeland 

• Concerned about conversions to Islam under Ottoman rule

• Personal link to Balkan Christianity

Albanian Memory:

• Remembered in Albanian Catholic tradition

• Symbol of Albanian contribution to universal Church

• Connection to later Albanian figures (Mother Teresa’s heritage)

• Unique in papal history

The Scholar Pope

Intellectual Legacy:

• Great benefactor of Vatican Library 

• Saved much of Rome’s antiquity 

• Excavated catacombs 

• Commissioned Illyricum Sacrum 

• Acquired Syriac manuscripts 

• Supported Assemani expeditions 

Scientific Patronage:

• Clementina meridian 

• Encouraged astronomical research

• Connected scientific precision with papal authority

Literary Work:

• Composed Office of St. Joseph 

• Prepared with own hand numerous allocutions, briefs, constitutions 

• Command of classical Latinity 

• Preached beautiful homilies 

Final Judgment

Pope Clement XI, Giovanni Francesco Albani, reigned for twenty years—one of the longest pontificates of the 18th century, and one of the most consequential. He stands at the crossroads of eras: the last Counter-Reformation pope, the first pope of the Enlightenment age; a man of medieval piety facing modern political realities; a scholar in an age of power; a saintly man in a cynical century.

His greatest positive legacy is cultural and intellectual. The Vatican Library’s Oriental collections owe much to his patronage. The catacombs were excavated under his sponsorship. The meridian line in Santa Maria degli Angeli still bears his name. He preserved Rome’s antiquities for future generations. In an age of war and controversy, he built for eternity.

His greatest doctrinal legacy is Unigenitus. Whatever one thinks of its contents, it defined Catholic teaching on grace and Church authority for centuries. It provoked controversy but ultimately prevailed. It demonstrated that the papacy, even in political decline, could still speak with authority on faith and morals.

His greatest failure is the Chinese Rites decision. Acting from theological conviction, he destroyed one of the most promising missions in Church history. The ban led to persecution, expulsion, and the ruin of flourishing Christian communities. It would take over two centuries to repair the damage. Good intentions, disastrous consequences.

His political legacy is one of defeat. The War of the Spanish Succession demonstrated that the papacy was no longer a major power. Utrecht and Rastatt parceled out papal fiefs without papal consent. The great powers ignored his nuncio. The shrinking of papal political influence, already underway, became unmistakable.

His personal example is one of holiness. Daily Mass and confession. Fasting and prayer. Prodigious work for the Church. Charity to the poor. Simplicity of life. Refusal to enrich his family. He lived what he believed, and he believed deeply.

He died on St. Joseph’s feast—the saint for whom he had “particular devotion,” whose Office he composed. It was a fitting end for a pope who had labored in the shadow of the foster father of Jesus—hidden, faithful, productive, humble.

His simple tomb in St. Peter’s pavement speaks volumes. After the Baroque splendor of Urban VIII, Alexander VII, and even his predecessor Innocent XII (whose tomb is modest but visible), Clement XI chose obscurity. The scholar pope lies beneath the feet of pilgrims, anonymous, humble, at peace.

In the history of the papacy, Clement XI occupies a middle place: not among the greatest, but far from the worst. He was a good man in difficult times, a learned man in an age of power, a pious man in a cynical century. He did what he thought right, and accepted the consequences.

Epitaph (expanded):

“Giovanni Francesco Albani of Urbino, of Albanian blood, Roman by vocation, pope by reluctant consent. He served God with prodigious labor, enriched the Vatican with treasures of the East, gave the Church its teaching on grace, and sheltered exiled kings. He failed in politics but succeeded in holiness. He died on St. Joseph’s feast and lies in simple pavement—the scholar pope who asked nothing for himself and gave everything to the Church.”

Clement XI: the Albanian pope, the scholar pope, the pope of Unigenitus and of the Chinese Rites—a man whose light still shines, whose shadows still linger, whose memory still teaches.